Modeling Reference - Air Valves

  Applies To 
  Product(s): HAMMER
  Version(s): V8i, CONNECT Edition
  Area:  Modeling
  Original Author: Jesse Dringoli, Bentley Technical Support Group

Overview

This TechNote explains how the Air Valve element works and its typical application for transient simulations in HAMMER.

Note: for details on the use of air valves during a steady state or EPS in WaterGEMS or WaterCAD, see this.

Table of Contents

 

How it Works and When to Use it

The Air Valve element (sometimes referred to as a combination air valve or CAV) is typically placed at high points in the pipeline and other areas that are susceptible to sub-atmospheric pressure during a transient event. They allow air to enter into the system during periods when the head drops below the pipe elevation and expels air from the system when water columns begin to rejoin. After the air has been expelled and the pressure is positive, the valve becomes closed. 

If you are analyzing an existing system that has air valves, you should place them at the appropriate locations. If analyzing a proposed system or system improvements, you will likely want to first compute the transient simulation without the air valves. In the Transient Results Viewer, you would check the pressure envelope to identify critical points where air valves may help prevent vapor pockets. Then, you would place the air valves along your pipeline and compute the transient simulation for a range of air valve types and/or configurations. Comparing the profile animation or pressure envelope for each trial of air valve configuration (orifice size, air valve types, etc.) will give you a good idea of the sensitivity and behavior of the air valves in your system. 

There are essentially two ways in which an active air valve can behave:  

  1. Pressure below atmospheric - air valve is open and acts to maintain pressure of zero on the upstream end.
  2. Pressure above atmospheric - air valve is closed and acts as a junction.

The presence of air in the pipe limits sub-atmospheric pressures in the vicinity of the valve and for some distance to either side, as shown on HAMMER profile graphs. Air can also reduce high transient pressures if it is compressed enough to slow the water columns prior to impact.

Note: low or sub-atmospheric pressure can still occur further along the pipeline; the air valve element only provides local protection.

Typically, the air inlet orifice is large (1-3") in order to allow free air intake and there is no throttling due to the sonic limit. If the air inflow orifice is too small, the model may show the hydraulic grade dipping below the physical elevation of the air valve (negative pressure) in an animation of the profile. The outflow orifice may be smaller, which will limit air outflow and cause the air to compress inside the pipe and cushion the water column collapse.

Without an air valve, sub-atmospheric pressure (such as those caused by an emergency pump shutdown) can cause contaminants to be sucked into the system. Thin-walled pipes can collapse and vapor pockets can can form (since water boils at such low pressures). This can cause pipes to collapse or may cause damage to pump impellers.

 

However, you must be careful when using the air valve, since extreme high pressure surges can be caused when the air pocket collapses. If the air inside the air valve is expelled too quickly, the water columns in the adjacent pipes can collide at a high velocity and the force will cause a severe transient. This is similar to the surge that occurs when a water column slams against a closed valve, except in this case the momentum of two water columns are hitting each other without the delay involved with valve closure. Likewise, if an air outlet orifice that is too small, the air cannot escape quickly enough. For this reason, care must be taken to select an appropriate air valve type and size, so as not to cause worse transients than if no valve had been used. It is common to use a "triple-acting" air valve to help against this problem, as this type of air valve throttles the size of the outflow orifice, typically using a float.

For example, consider the animations below, which illustrate a pump shutdown event with an air valve at the high point. The first depicts a double acting air valve that releases air too quickly because of a large outflow orifice. Notice the high pressure transient that occurs when the water columns collide. The second animation depicts a triple acting air valve. The transition from large to small outflow orifice is configured in such a way that it provides a cushion that helps with the water column collision, but also doesn't raise the pressure too much before that happens. Notice that the head starts to increase when the transition to the small outflow orifice occurs, but the flow is not restricted enough to cause this head increase to become too severe. 

 

Double acting air valve with large outflow orifice

Triple acting air valve

Air Valve Topology (In-line vs. at a Tee)

Air valves can be placed directly in series with the main pipeline, or the "tee" lateral pipe that connects the air valve to the main pipe can be modeled explicitly. Here are the benefits and drawbacks of each approach:

Air valve on main line

  • Simplifies the model since the extra tee pipe element is not included
  • Enables you to view air pocket formation at the air valve in profile view in the Transient Results Viewer, since the air valves are included in the profile path.
  • Resistance from the tee pipe is not accounted for, but may be very minimal in reality (and OK to exclude) especially if the lateral pipe drains out very quickly
  • Makes it harder to turn them on and off (active topology - see below)

Air valve at a Tee

  • Adds an extra pipe to the model
  • Air pocket formation is not visible in profile view in the Transient Results Viewer, since the air valves are not included in the profile path.
  • Resistance from the tee pipe is accounted for, but may be very minimal in reality (and OK to exclude) especially if the lateral pipe drains out very quickly. Could be misleading if the pipe is artificially lengthening, increasing the headloss. See more below.
  • Make it easier to turn the air valves on and off (active topology - see more below)

The addition of the tee pipe introduces friction losses which could be significant in some cases and cause a difference in results. In particular this could impact the pressure drop at the air valve location due to the friction loss from flow in the lateral pipe, which may not occur in the real system if the lateral pipe is very short and drains out right away, whereas HAMMER does not track the air pocket movement as documented further below and here. Furthermore, short lateral pipes may be artificially lengthened by HAMMER as seen here, skewing the results as there could be more resistance than expected. Friction losses across the lateral pipe can be examined in more detail by adding the air valve and the adjacent junction as report points in the transient calculation options, then viewing a Time History graph of Hydraulic Grade in the Transient Results Viewer for both sides of the lateral (tee) pipe. Note also the "length adjustment" property of the pipe.

Note that the hydraulics may also be different in the "tee" approach when compared to the "in-line" approach due to how the air pocket will expand only on one side of the air valve as opposed to both sides with the in-line approach. (Please also refer to the section "Tracking of air pockets" regarding limitations of air pocket tracking in this wiki or found in this link.) Plus, the extra pipe may change the timing of transient wave interactions because it introduces a three-way junction and because it will typically be short and therefore susceptible to having its length or wave speed significantly adjusted. With that said, the real system most likely has a tee pipe connecting between the main and the air valve device. If you use the "tee" approach and encounter an issue with an initial surge and unexpected HGL difference in the tee pipe, be sure to select "true" for the "treat as junction" property (see more on this below)  

Inactive Air Valves

In some cases, you may want to analyze the system without air valves. For example, you may have a "no protection" scenario that describes the system without air valves, or a scenario where an alternative protection approach is taken. In these scenarios, you cannot simply delete the air valve, or even make them inactive by choosing "false" for "is active?". The reason is because every pipe must have a node at each endpoint. You also cannot simply select "True" for the "Treat as junction?" attribute, as this only applies to the initial conditions calculation.

This situation should be approached by using different active topology alternatives, with one of two methods:

1. Place the air valve at a "tee" to the main pipeline. This way you can simply make the air valve and adjacent pipe inactive in the scenarios where the air valves are not present. This method is easier to manage and will account for headloss in the lateral pipe, which can sometimes be significant.

Note: consider the warnings further above about the hydraulic differences between the tee and in-line approach.

 2. In the scenario where the air valves are not present, make the air valve and both adjacent pipes inactive, then make a new pipe going around the air valve active. Do the opposite in the scenarios where the air valves are present - make the air valve and adjacent pipes active but the other, single pipe inactive. Be careful when using this approach, as friction headloss in the lateral pipe is omitted. You may want to ensure that the bypass pipe and the pipes between the air valve and the adjacent junctions are long enough so as not to cause significant adjustment to the length or wave speed.

If you're not sure which approach is best, a sensitivity analysis is recommended. Try both methods and compare the differences in the transient response for the event you are trying to simulate. If no notable difference is seen in the transient response, then using the approach that is easiest for you to manage in your model should be appropriate.

Note: If the location of the vapor/air collapse is directly on the profile, you will see the formation of the pocket in the transient profile and the subsequent pressure upsurge.

However, if the element is not along the profile, such as an air valve at a tee, you might see what appears to be an upsurge without a cause for it. But even if the air valve is at a tee, you would still see the impact of the air pocket collapse.

What if my air valve is open during the Initial Conditions?

If you are pumping over a high point with an air valve that is open under normal operating conditions, with some amount of part-full flow in the downstream pipe (which then resumes to pressure flow), there are some important considerations.

As seen in the link above, you can set the air valve property "Treat air valve as junction?" to "False" and the upstream pump will use the air valve as a boundary in order add enough head to overcome it in the initial conditions calculation.  

When an air valve is used in the initial conditions, it is internally treated as a pressure sustaining valve (PSV) in order to force an upstream pump to add enough head to keep positive pressure at the high point. Because of this, a headloss occurs through the air valve in order to balance energy across the network. So, you may notice a large drop in hydraulic grade downstream of the air valve, without it being reported in the "Headloss" results field for a pipe. In some cases, this may cause the pressure at downstream nodes to be negative. This situation should be interpreted as part-full flow when looking at the initial conditions. See the link above for further details.

Because of this behavior, you will have headlosses and pressures that may not be realistic. This can cause an issue when calculating a transient run, since that HAMMER requires the initial conditions to be very accurate to assure accurate transient results. The equations behind HAMMER assume full flow in pipes. While the initial conditions results may not match the results in the actual system, HAMMER will still use these results as the starting point for the simulation. If the negative pressure is below the vapor pressure limit set in the calculation options, HAMMER will assume that vapor would actually have formed at those locations. Even if the pressure does not drop to the vapor pressure limit in the part-full sections, you might encounter a friction loss error for the pipe.

Because of these complexities, the modeling approach must be modified in these situations in order to do a transient analysis. (Note: This assumes that part flow is really expected.) In such a case, the model should be ended at the point where full flow transitions to part-full flow. It is recommended that this be done with a reservoir, a demand or a Discharge to Atmosphere (see item 2 in this TechNote, under the section titled Common Applications of the D2A acting as an orifice). This approach is typically acceptable because the transient waves would not propagate past the air gap formed at the air valve.

But what if I'm modeling a pump startup event and the air valve pressure will be positive after the pump starts up? In this case, consider modeling a pump shutdown followed by startup as described in this article. Because the pump will be initially on, this will enable you to properly model the initial conditions (if the pressure is positive at the air valves during the initial conditions with the pump(s) on), while also enabling you to model the pump startup transient (the pump shuts down slowly first, things settle down, then they start it back up).

Tracking of Air Pockets

HAMMER is able to track the volume of air entering the system at an air valve, but the following assumptions and limitations apply: 

- The air pocket takes up the entire cross section of the pipe
- The air pocket is localized at the point of formation, i.e., the air valve node. For this reason, the extent of the air pocket along the pipeline is unknown and the air-liquid interface is assumed to be at the node location. 
- The reduction in pressure wave speed that can result from the presence of finely dispersed air or vapor bubbles in the fluid is accounted for by configuring the Wave Speed Reduction Factor in the calculation options.
- Air pockets entering an air valve can only exit the system through the same point. It is assumed that the pocket cannot be swept downstream and expelled elsewhere. 

In most modeling cases these assumptions are acceptable and should not result in significant error. In each case, the assumptions are made so that HAMMER's results provide conservative predictions of extreme transient pressures. Note that since the air pocket is reported at the air valve location, you will need to include the air valve in your profile in order to see air pockets forming in profile view. If your air valves are at a tee from the main line, you will not see air volume reported in the profile, as the air valve element will not be directly included in the profile path. It is possible to view the air volume in the Time History graphs of the Transient Results Viewer regardless of where the air valve is in relation to the main line.

If you need to track the location of the air-liquid interface of an air pocket entering the system (instead of assuming it's localized at the air valve node), you can use the Extended CAV method. To do this, open the transient calculation options (Home > (Calculation) Options > Transient Solver or Analysis > (Calculation) Options > Transient Solver) and set "Run Extended CAD?" to "True."  

When a sufficiently large volume of air enters a pipeline, the flow regime evolves from hydraulic transients to mass oscillations. Thus, at least in the vicinity of the air, the system may be represented by rigid-column theory rather than the elastic approach. Using the Extended CAV option activates this rigid (inelastic) approach. Besides improved computational efficiency, the rigid approach allows for the tracking of the air-liquid interface. When using extended CAV, the program will automatically switch between the regular (concentrated/elastic) and Extended (rigid) based on the percentage of the adjacent pipe volume that the air pocket occupies.

There are two ways to observe the air-liquid interface tracking when using the Extended CAV option: First, you can open the "Analysis Output Log" under Report > Transient Reports, and scroll down to the section beginning with:

*** SNAPSHOT OF EVERY END POINT AT START OF TIME STEP 2 ***

Below this table, you will find information pertaining to element statuses, including Extended CAV air/liquid interface. Example:

Second, you can open the Transient Results Viewer and animate a report path including the air valve and adjacent pipes. As the pipeline fills with air, you can observe the change in HGL downstream of the air valve. This is the air/liquid interface:




In some cases, the Extended CAV model may not be appropriate. For example, if you have a triple acting air valve with transition volume, it may not be appropriate since that is more of an elastic situation. The Extended CAV option is typically used when relatively large volumes of air enter the system.

Note: the Extended CAV option will only track air volume up to the extents of the adjacent pipes. In the event that the air expands greatly so that the interface moves down towards the neighbor node to the verge of draining, HAMMER issues a warning message, freezes the horizontal surface at the elevation of the neighbor node, and continues to track the volume, which could conceivably exceed the branch's volume.

 

Air Flow Rate Calculation

To compute the flow rate of air through the air valve element when specify the openings as equivalent diameters, HAMMER uses the following equation:

 

Where ρo is the density of air at 4°C and 1 atmosphere (=1.293 g/l), S=0.6A, with A being the cross-sectional area of the orifice. The throttling of air flow due to the "sonic velocity" is automatically calculated using the below formulation:

 

where Y is the exponent in the gas law, p is the absolute pressure, the subscript 0 denotes standard conditions, and p/ρy = constant.

p0 is the atmosphere pressure, unit is pound-force/ft2, value = 2116.2 pound-force/ft2 = 101.325 kPa
ρ0 is gas density at 40C and 1 atmosphere pressure; unit is slugs/ft3, value = 0.00251 slugs/ft3 = 1.293 kg/m3.
p is gas pressure, unit is pound-force/ft^2,
ρ is gas density, unit is slugs/ft3, can be derived using equation:  ρ=〖(P/(P_0/〖ρ_0〗^γ))〗^(1/γ) 
Vmax unit is ft/s
S = 0.6A, with A being the cross-section area of the orifice, unit is ft2.
QM is air valve flow mass rate, unit is slugs/s.
γ = 1.4 in air valve calculation

If you want to calculate air volume rate, you can remove from the QM ρ0 equation and the unit will be ft3/s.

For air inflow, the first equation above is applicable, except that the ratio within the square brackets is inverted to be p/p0 as p0>p in this instance. The exponent, Y, in the gas law is hard-coded as 1.4, which corresponds to adiabatic compression/expansion appropriate for the typically rapid processes that occur. Note that "Vmax" is not the same thing as the sonic limit. Vmax is the maximum velocity that would be achieved by a fluid when it is accelerated to absolute zero temperature in an imaginary adiabatic expansion process. It is a term used in the calculations for air flow rate, but the sonic limit is ~340 m/s (1115 ft/s) at 60 degrees F.

Note: You can enter a rating curve of pressure versus air flow rate, instead of specifying an equivalent orifice. See further below.

Note: The above is used to calculate the "free air" flow rate, at atmospheric pressure (see diagram under Reporting below). Currently, the air flow rate reported by HAMMER in the text reports is the flow rate at pipeline pressure (just on the inside of the pipe), which will be different due to differences in air density. If you are interested in the flow rate of air at the opening to the atmosphere, this is available in the Extended Node Data tab of the Transient Results Viewer in version 10.03.04.05 and higher. See note below on "Report Period" for more on that.

Note: calculation of vapor pocket formation and collapse is different and documented here: Vapor pocket calculation in HAMMER

 

Air Valve Types and Attributes

General,

The following attributes are available in the air valve properties, regardless of the air valve type: 

"Treat Air Valve as junction" - This option specifies whether or not to treat the air valve as a junction element during the initial conditions calculation. When set to "False," the valve may allow part-full flow during the initial conditions, depending on the system conditions. This is mainly used for sewer force mains and is typically not used during a transient analysis. This setting has no effect on the transient simulation itself. Meaning, the air valve will still function as an air valve during the transient simulation, even if this is set to True". Further details on this can be found at this link

"Elevation" - This field identifies the elevation of the air valve. The elevation is important because it determines the pressure at that node. It should be set to the elevation of the opening of the actual valve. When the hydraulic grade at the air valve location drops below the air valve's elevation, air intake starts to occur, since the pressure at that node would then be below zero. 

"Report Period" - Entering a number in this field will allow HAMMER to report extended results for the air valve. For example, a report period of 10 would cause extended results to be reported every 10 time steps. If the calculation time step was 0.01 seconds, that means you will see these results at a 0.1 second interval. To view these extended results after computing the transient simulation, go to the Extended Node Data tab of the Transient Results Viewer (in version 10.03.04.05) or go to Report > Transient Reports > Transient Analysis Detailed Report (in earlier versions). The Extended Node Data tab enables you to graph results directly, while in the text reports you will need to scroll down almost to the bottom, to the section beginning with " ** Air valve at node Air Valve**." Below this, you will see a table of time, air volume, head, air mass and air outflow rate. Note that the flow rate shown in the text report is the flow rate at pipeline pressure, which will be different than the "free air" flow rate (shown in the graph version), due to differences in air density (see diagram below under Reporting, and more details on the calculations in the section "Air flow rate calculation" above.)

"Air Volume (initial)" - This field is available when using either the Double Acting or Triple Acting air valve type. It is used when modeling an air valve that is initially open. Like the "Treat air valve as junction?" attribute, this is rarely used. Intuitively, the initial conditions pressure must be zero in this case (air valve is open), and the air present inside the air valve is entered in this field. This might occur at a high point that operates under part-full flow in normal conditions.

"Air valve type" - This is where you specify which type of air valve will be used during the transient simulation. Details on how each type works and their corresponding input parameters are found below. 

"Air Flow Calculation Method" - This allows you to specify whether the air flow rate calculation is determined by a user-entered rating curve or calculated based on an equivalent orifice diameter.

Double Acting

With the double acting air valve, both inflow and outflow orifices are available. The diameters of these orifices don't change and there are two different actions:  

  1. Air inflow through the inflow orifice diameter
  2. Air outflow through the outflow orifice diameter


"Air Volume (Initial)" - The volume of air inside the air valve at the start of the simulation. If you need to enter a value here, then the pressure from the initial conditions must be zero (i.e., the air valve is open). This would only be used if you wanted to model an air valve that is open during the initial conditions, which is not typical. In most cases involving a pump, it is easier to begin the simulation with the pump on, then have the pump shut down and subsequently restart after an appropriate length of time, using the variable speed transient pump type.

"Diameter (Air Inflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the orifice for injection of air into the pipeline. This diameter should be large enough to allow the free entry of air into the pipeline. As of version 10.00.00.50, if the air inflow orifice diameter is set to zero, an air pocket can still form (it models neither a zero diameter nor an infinite diameter, currently). This is an unlikely condition, so it is not advisable to use a zero diameter inflow orifice size.

"Diameter (Air Outflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the orifice that allows discharge of air out of the air valve upon increase in pipeline pressure. It should be small enough to throttle the air flow and cushion the speed of the air pocket collapse. If set to zero, the air valve will act like a vacuum breaker type, in that no air can be released and the trapped air pocket will be compressed.

Triple Acting

This air valve type is used to model a triple acting air valve, which has an air inflow orifice at a fixed size and a variable-diameter air outflow orifice. Typically a float is used to decrease the orifice size, just before the air pocket is completely expelled. 

       

 

There are three different actions:  

  1. Air Inflow
  2. Air Outflow through the large orifice 
  3. Air Outflow through the small orifice 


When the air valve opens, air inflow comes in through the inflow diameter. When pressure returns, air escapes out of the large diameter outflow orifice. Just before all of the air has escaped, the float is pushed up, which decreases the diameter of the outflow orifice down to the "small" value. This cushions the air pocket collapse and subsequent collision of the water columns.



"Diameter (Air Inflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the orifice for injection of air into the pipeline. This diameter should be large enough to allow the free entry of air into the pipeline. As of version 10.00.00.50, if the air inflow orifice diameter is set to zero, an air pocket can still form (it models neither a zero diameter nor an infinite diameter, currently). This is an unlikely condition, so it is not advisable to use a zero diameter inflow orifice size.

"Diameter (Large Air Outflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the outflow orifice when the float is at the lowest position. It is the size of the orifice when the air volume inside the air valve is greater than or equal to the transition volume or when the air pressure is less than or equal to the transition pressure (depending on the method you selected to trigger the switch from large to small outflow orifice).

"Diameter (Small Air Outflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the outflow orifice when the float is at the highest position. It is the size of the orifice when the air volume inside the valve is less than the transition volume or when the air pressure is greater than the transition pressure. (depending on the selected method)

"Trigger to Switch Outflow Orifice Size" - You can choose to have the triple-acting air valve switch from the large to the small outflow orifice size based on a transition pressure or a transition volume. When selecting "Transition Volume", a "Transition Volume" input field is available. If you select "Transition Pressure," a "Transition Pressure" field is available.

"Transition Volume" - If you are using the transition volume option, this is the volume of air between the lowest and highest position of the float. In other words, it is the volume of air left in the system when the water starts to raise the float to decrease the orifice size. It is usually approximated as the volume of the body of the valve.

"Transition Pressure" - If you are using the transition pressure option, this is the pressure at the air valve location (i.e. the HGL minus the elevation) above which the outflow orifice switches from the large to the small size.

Note: Typically, there is a small amount of time to transition from the large to the small orifice diameter, but it is generally pretty quick. Given this, HAMMER assumes the switch is instantaneous. The outflow orifice will switch from the large to the small orifice as soon as the volume of air is less than the transition volume" or as soon as the pressure is greater than the "transition pressure," depending on the method you selected.

Not all triple-acting air valves trigger the outflow orifice transition based on a transition volume or pressure. For example, it may be based on velocity. In these cases, you will need to determine the air volume or system pressure at the air valve, at the time when your conditions is met. Start by setting the small outflow orifice diameter equal to the large, then enter a number in the "Report period" field. After computing the transient simulation, open the Extended Node Data tab of the Transient Results Viewer (in version 10.03.04.05) or the Transient Analysis Detailed Report from the Report menu (in older versions) and scroll down to the bottom. In the newer versions, Transient Results Viewer enables you to graph the air valve results directly while in older versions the text report show a table of air flow rate, air volume, pressure, etc over time, which you can use to determine the aforementioned air volume.

Vacuum Breaker

With the vacuum breaker air valve type, only the air inflow orifice diameter needs to be configured. This air valve type lets air into the system during sub-atmospheric pressure, but assumes the outflow diameter is very small (effectively zero) so it does not let air out. You will see the air volume change as the air pocket is compressed, but the mass of air in the pipe does not reduce. There is probably a very limited number of applications for this type valve. However, it could be used for draining a pipeline. 

Note: Any air pocket left in the system due to a vacuum breaker valve is assumed to be expelled out of the system by some other means. HAMMER currently cannot track the behavior of these trapped air pockets, as the underlying assumption is that the air must exit the system where it came in.

"Diameter (Air Inflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the orifice for injection of air into the pipeline. This diameter should be large enough to allow the free entry of air into the pipeline.

Slow Closing

Although similar to the other air valve types, the slow closing air valve only has a single orifice involved; for the expulsion of air and liquid. An air inflow orifice is not required because HAMMER assumes that air will be freely allowed into the system (no throttling) when the head drops below the air valve elevation. The valve starts to close linearly with respect to area only when air begins to exit from the pipeline (after the head begins to rise).  

It is possible for liquid to be discharged through this valve for a period after the air has been expelled, unlike the other air valve types, which closes when all the air has been evacuated from the pipeline. Typically you will want the valve to be fully closed after all air has been expelled, but before too much water has been expelled. 

"Diameter (Air Outflow Orifice)" - This is the diameter of the orifice that allows discharge of air out of the air valve upon increase in pipeline pressure. It should be small enough to throttle the air flow and cushion the speed of the air pocket collapse. 

Note: There are many other advanced air valves that work differently than the types currently available in HAMMER (some work on flow rate), but they are not yet supported. A conservative approximation using one of the available types should normally suffice in this case. Future versions of HAMMER may allow the user to enter a custom pressure versus air flow rating table.  

Dynamic Air Valves

A "dynamic" air valve is typically one that does not start closing until the air pocket is fully expelled, so some water discharge occurs before full closure. See further below for more on this.

Reporting

Extended Node Data

Starting with HAMMER CONNECT Edition version 10.03.04.05, air valves are available in the Extended Node Data tab. Results will include Air Volume, Air Head, and Free Air Flow Out. To access this, go to the Extended Node Data tab in the Transient Results Viewer. The Free Air Flow Out result is the air flow out of the air valve. This is a new result for air valves. If you want to see the pressurized air flow in the air valve used in earlier versions of HAMMER, this will still be available in the Transient Analysis Detailed Report.

More information on Extended Node Data can be found here: How to view extended node transient results for HAMMER elements.

Time History graphs

To view the hydraulic grade, pressure, water flow rate and air pocket size in the pipe endpoint adjacent to an air valve, be sure to add those points in the report points collection in the transient calculation options, then use the Time Histories tab in the Transient Results Viewer.

Transient Analysis Detailed Report

To see results specific to the air valve itself, like air mass and pressurized air flow in the air valve, you can use the Transient Analysis Detailed Report. If you have an older version of HAMMER, you will also use the Transient Analysis Detailed Report to find air volume and air head results. 

To view extended results, first enter a number in the "Report Period" field in the air valve properties. For example, a report period of '10' would cause extended results to be reported at every 10 time steps. So, if the calculation time step was 0.01 seconds, that means you will see these results at a 0.1 second interval. To view these extended results after computing the transient simulation, go to the Extended Node Data tab of the Transient Results Viewer (in version 10.03.04.05) or for older versions go to Report > Transient Reports > Transient Analysis Detailed Report. Scroll down almost to the bottom, to the section beginning with " ** Air valve at node Air Valve**." Below this, you will see a table of time, air volume, head, air mass, and air outflow rate. Newer versions able you to graph the results directly. Note that the flow rate shown in the text report is the flow rate at pipeline pressure, which will be different than the "free air" flow rate (shown in the graphs for the newer versions), due to differences in air density (see illustration below). If you are interested in calculating the free air flow rate or velocity, see the "air flow rate calculations" section further above. A positive value for "air-flow" indicates outflow and a negative value indicates inflow.

Transient Analysis Output Log

You can also review summary information on the air pockets, in the "Analysis Output Log", found from the Reports > Transient Reports. Once open, search for "list of sorted" and you will see a table of all locations in the model (pipe endpoints, with format of pipe:node) where at least one vapor or air pocket has formed during the transient simulation. Time-series information on air valve results are found in the Detailed Report as mentioned further above.

The "MAX. VOL" column shows the maximum volume of air or vapor at that location over the course of the transient simulation. For metric units, the value is multiplied by 1000.

The "CURR. Vol" column shows the vapor or air volume at the end of the transient simulation (last time step, current volume). For metric units, the value is multiplied by 1000. A positive value there indicates you may need to run the simulation longer by increasing the duration in the transient calculation options in order to see the system reach a true final steady state. Or, if this is a pump shutdown event, you may need to analyze what happens when the pump turns back on and vapor or air pockets collapse. 

The "CURR. FLW#" column shows the flow through the respective endpoint, at the end of the transient simulation (last time step, current flow). For metric units, the value is multiplied by 1000.

Reporting air velocity.

See: Reporting the velocity of air through an air valve in HAMMER

Using a Custom Air Flow Curve

Traditionally, the openings for air flow into and out of an air valve are specified in terms of an equivalent diameter. As of V8i SELECTseries 2 (08.11.02.31) you can now specify a pressure vs. air flow rating curve for any of the openings, instead of an equivalent orifice.

  • This is convenient in cases where the manufacturer provides a rating curve instead of orifice sizes
  • Positive flows and pressures should be entered for outflow and negative flows and pressures should be entered for inflow.
  • Air valve rating curves can be stored in an air flow curve engineering library. There is some example data is included in the engineering libraries.
  • The values on the curves are not extrapolated during the calculations. When the air pressure is beyond the range of the curve, it uses the last flow rate value.
  • The flow rates entered here are the "free air" flow rates at atmospheric pressure. The air flow rate reported by HAMMER in the text reports is the flow rate at pipeline pressure, which will be different due to differences in air density. In version 10.03.04.05 and above, the Extended Node Data tab of the Transient Results Viewer shows the free air flow rate. In older versions, if you are interested in the free air flow rate (at the opening to the atmosphere), you may be able to determine that by also looking at the air mass result that is available in the Transient Analysis Detailed Report. See note above on "Report Period" for more on that.
  • The "Pressure (Line)" refers to the actual gauge pressure of air, relative to the water level. Meaning, the actual air pressure above the water level (not currently a result shown) not the pressure reported at the air valve location. See more here.
  • Known issues / troubleshooting custom air flow curves
    • If your air outflow orifice has greater capacity than the air inflow orifice and you experience unstable results, you may have encountered a known issue (reference # 901826) that has been patched in version 10.01.01.04. First, confirm that the curves are correct, as normally the air outflow orifice should have less capacity than the inflow orifice, in order to provide a controlled air expulsion. If the curves are correct, contact Technical Support for the latest cumulative patch for version 10.01.01.04, or upgrade to a newer version when available.
    • If the calculation fails with a message simply stating "calculation cancelled by user", you may have encountered a known issue (reference number 1356178 reported for HAMMER 23.00.00.19) related to the number of air valve using custom air flow curves. In at least one case, this was known to occur when using 300+ air valves with air flow curves. Try using the orifice diameter method on some air valves or contact Support for help. See also: "Calculation cancelled by user" when attempting to compute transient simulation in HAMMER

NOTE : Delays in opening or closing of the valves are considered negligible, since the pressure drops below zero air starts flowing in. But still if you want to consider this effect in modeling you could use the custom air flow curve option to introduce this delay by setting the air flow rate to zero for pressures slightly negative. In the Air Flow Calculation Method property field, use the "Air flow curve" instead of "Orifice diameter" to account for this delay for valves.

Modeling a Dynamic Air Valve

A "dynamic" air valve is typically one that does not start closing until the air pocket is fully expelled, so some water discharge occurs before full closure. For example A.R.I. D-070.

Since none of the available air valve types directly model this (currently), a workaround could be used, with a D2A (which supports air inflow) and a TCV (to model the air valve closure). You would first set the D2A to be initially closed, observe the time when the transient results reach zero pressure, configure the D2A to open at that time, then observe when the air is fully released and construct an Operating Rule pattern for the TCV to start closing at that time. Water discharge will occur between that time and when the valve is fully closed.

See more details here: Modeling Dynamic Air Valves (DAV)

Troubleshooting

Why are my transient pressures worse after adding an air valve?

Air is likely being released too quickly, causing the adjacent water columns to collide at high speed. See more here: Transient pressure worse with air valve added

Why do I see air outflow when the air valve pressure is negative?

This condition is possible because of the drop in water level inside the air valve. Meaning, the hydraulic grade shown in the results at an air valve is actually the water level inside the air valve, not the hydraulic grade resulting from air pressure. See: Positive air outflow occurs when air valve pressure is negative during transient simulation

Example Model

For recent versions of HAMMER, an example model is included which demonstrates air valve modeling. This can be found in the Samples subfolder within the HAMMER installation folder and is called Air_Valve_Example.wtg

If you are using an older version of HAMMER that does not have this example model, you can download it from the below link.

Note:

  • The link below is to a version that can be opened in HAMMER V8i build 08.11.00.30 and above. 
  • Additional information can be found in the Project Properties
  • You must be signed in to download the file. The link will not work if you are not signed in.
  • This model is for illustrative purposes only

Click to Download

See Also

How to graph extended transient results such as gas volume for hydropneumatic tanks, pump or turbine speed, air valve extended data, etc.

Protective Equipment FAQ

General HAMMER V8i FAQ

AWWA Book: M51 Air Valves: Air Release, Air/Vacuum, and Combination, Second Edition

ARI Air Valves (contains many animations)

Journal Papers:

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